Photonic Integrated circuits (PIC), distinct from traditional electronic integrated circuits (IC) which integrate various electronic components such as transistors, capacitors and resistors, are compact integrated devices that integrate multiple photonic components and functions on a single chip. Optical or optoelectronic devices in PIC include lasers, electro-optic modulators, photodetectors, optical attenuators, optical multiplexers/demultiplexers, and optical amplifiers.

These devices are connected through optical waveguides to form photonic circuits, enabling the generation, transmission, detection and processing of optical signals. The information in photonic integrated circuits is created, modulated and measured in the form of optical signals.

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Photonic integrated circuits (PIC) have gradually developed into a mature and powerful technology in recent years. As the core of the next-generation information technology, they are replacing traditional electronic modes with optical signals to achieve higher speed and lower power consumption data transmission and processing, and are widely used in computing, communication, medical care, autonomous driving and other fields.
The application of optical chips include but are not limited to the following aspects: data centers, AI computing power, 5G/6G communication, autonomous driving, biomedicine and quantum computing, etc.

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In the design and manufacture of optical chips, the selection of waveguides - the core path for optical signal transmission, is closely related to specific application scenarios and the functional requirements of the chips. Optical chips in different applications have significantly different requirements for the optical performance and physical properties of waveguide materials. Therefore, materials with their own advantages are selected: silicon, lithium niobate, silicon dioxide, III-V semiconductors represented by indium phosphide and gallium arsenide, silicon nitride, and various polymers, etc., are all common waveguide materials.

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However, as the waveguide size of optical chips enters the sub-micron level - equivalent to one-thousandth of the diameter of a human hair or even smaller - this extremely small scale makes them highly sensitive to minute deviations in the manufacturing process. Specifically, whether it is tolerance fluctuations in the manufacturing process (such as slight deviations in etching accuracy), stress accumulation between different material film layers, or microscopic defects inherent in the material itself (such as lattice misalignment, impurity particles), even deviations at the micrometer or even nanometer level may have a significant impact on the optical guiding performance of the waveguide.

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This high sensitivity directly brings about production challenges: on the one hand, it leads to the emergence of a large number of defective products whose performance does not meet the design standards; On the other hand, the performance of chips at different positions on the same wafer can also show significant differences - some have low signal transmission loss and fast response speed, while others have excessive loss and slow response, greatly reducing consistency. Ultimately, this will lead to an expansion of the performance fluctuation range of optical chips and a relatively low production yield. The insufficient yield will further increase the manufacturing cost per unit chip, which to a certain extent restricts the large-scale application of optical chips.

(Note: Image from online resources)

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